Science & Technology — 2024

CRISPR/Cas9 — Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats. A molecular scissors tool that can edit DNA at precise locations. Cas9 is the enzyme that cuts the DNA strand. Originally a bacterial immune defence mechanism against viruses.

GM Crops in India — Bt Cotton is the only commercially approved GM crop in India. Uses Cry genes (Cry1Ac, Cry2Ai) from Bacillus thuringiensis to produce toxins against bollworm. Dhara Mustard Hybrid-11 (DMH-11) — GM mustard developed by Delhi University using barnase-barstar system for hybrid vigour. GEAC has recommended its environmental release.

Gene-Drive Technology — uses CRISPR to ensure a particular gene is inherited by nearly all offspring (bypasses normal 50% Mendelian inheritance). Application: controlling mosquito populations to fight malaria.

Genome Sequencing — reading the exact order of nucleotide bases (A, T, G, C) in DNA. Human Genome Project (1990-2003) sequenced the entire human genome. India's Genome India Project aims to sequence 10,000 Indian genomes.

Chromosomes & Telomeres — Humans have 23 pairs (46 total) of chromosomes. Telomeres are protective caps at chromosome ends that shorten with each cell division — linked to ageing. Enzyme telomerase can rebuild telomeres (active in cancer cells and stem cells).

Three Parent Baby (Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy) — technique to prevent mitochondrial diseases. Nuclear DNA from two parents + mitochondrial DNA from a donor egg. UK was the first country to legalise it.

Stem Cells — undifferentiated cells that can develop into specialised cell types. Types: Embryonic stem cells (pluripotent), Adult stem cells (multipotent), and iPSCs (Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells — adult cells reprogrammed to embryonic-like state; 2012 Nobel Prize to Shinya Yamanaka).

CAR-T Cell Therapy — Chimeric Antigen Receptor T-cell therapy. Patient's T-cells are extracted, genetically modified to recognise cancer cells, expanded in lab, and re-infused. India's first indigenous CAR-T therapy: NexCAR19 developed by IIT Bombay & ImmunoACT. Targets CD19 protein on B-cell lymphomas/leukemias.

Lymphocytes — white blood cells central to adaptive immunity. B-cells (produce antibodies, mature in bone marrow), T-cells (cell-mediated immunity, mature in thymus), Natural Killer (NK) cells (innate immunity, destroy virus-infected & tumour cells).

Epigenetics — changes in gene expression without altering the DNA sequence itself. Caused by environmental factors, lifestyle, diet, stress. These changes can be heritable.

DNA Methylation — the most studied epigenetic mechanism. A methyl group (CH3) is added to DNA, typically at cytosine bases, which silences gene expression. Abnormal methylation patterns are linked to cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

GARBH-Ini Initiative — Group for Advanced Research on Birth Outcomes. A DBT (Department of Biotechnology) funded cohort study at Translational Health Science and Technology Institute (THSTI), Faridabad. Studies epigenetic and environmental factors affecting pregnancy outcomes and preterm births in India.

National Quantum Mission (NQM) — approved in 2023 with Rs 6,003 crore outlay (2023-2031). Aims to develop quantum computers with 50-1000 physical qubits, satellite-based quantum communication, and quantum sensing & metrology.

Blockchain — decentralised, distributed ledger technology. Each block contains data, its own hash, and the hash of the previous block. BaaS (Blockchain as a Service) — cloud-based service letting users build blockchain apps without managing infrastructure. SaaS (Software as a Service) — cloud-hosted software accessed via subscription (e.g., Google Workspace).

Crypto Mining — Proof of Work (PoW): miners solve complex mathematical puzzles to validate transactions (energy-intensive; used by Bitcoin). Proof of Stake (PoS): validators are chosen based on how many coins they hold and "stake" (energy-efficient; used by Ethereum post-Merge).

AI Safety — Bletchley Declaration (2023) — signed by 28 countries including India at the UK AI Safety Summit. First major international agreement acknowledging frontier AI risks. Committed to international cooperation on AI safety research and testing.

Generative AI — AI that creates new content (text, images, code, music). Examples: ChatGPT (text), DALL-E (images), GitHub Copilot (code). Uses Large Language Models (LLMs) trained on massive datasets. Key concern: hallucinations (confident but incorrect outputs).

3D Printing (Additive Manufacturing) — builds objects layer by layer from digital models. Types: FDM (Fused Deposition Modelling), SLA (Stereolithography), SLS (Selective Laser Sintering). Applications: medical implants, aerospace components, construction (3D-printed houses), and rapid prototyping.

Deepfakes — AI-generated synthetic media (video/audio) that convincingly replaces one person's likeness with another. Uses GANs (Generative Adversarial Networks). Threats: misinformation, fraud, election manipulation. India has no dedicated deepfake law yet; IT Act Section 66D covers identity fraud.

Computing power is measured in FLOPS (Floating Point Operations Per Second). 1 PetaFLOP = 10¹⁵ FLOPS. 1 ExaFLOP = 10¹⁸ FLOPS.

National Supercomputing Mission (NSM) — joint initiative of MeitY and DST. Aims to install 73 supercomputers across India. Implemented by C-DAC and IISc.

FSOC (Free Space Optical Communication) — uses light (lasers) to transmit data through free space instead of fibre optic cables. High-speed, low-latency. Limitation: affected by weather (fog, rain). Project Taara by Alphabet (Google) uses FSOC to beam internet across the Congo River.

Li-Fi (Light Fidelity) — uses visible light to transmit data. Faster than Wi-Fi (up to 224 Gbps in lab). Cannot pass through walls (advantage for security, limitation for range). Uses LED bulbs for transmission.

Sanchar Saathi — DoT portal for citizens to track and block lost/stolen mobile phones, check connections in their name (TAFCOP), and verify device authenticity (CEIR). ASTR (AI-based Solution for Telecom-Related fraud management) — AI tool to detect and disconnect fraudulent mobile connections.

BhaROS — Indian mobile OS developed by IIT Madras. Based on AOSP (Android Open Source Project). Focuses on security with no default apps and trusted app store only. Maya OS — Linux-based operating system developed by Indian defence forces as a replacement for Windows to guard against cyber threats.

Gatekeepers (Digital Markets Act) — EU's DMA designates large tech platforms (Google, Apple, Meta, Amazon, Microsoft, ByteDance) as "gatekeepers" — they must allow interoperability, data portability, and cannot self-preference. India's Competition Amendment Act 2023 draws on similar principles.

Chandrayaan-3 — India's third lunar mission. Soft-landed on the Moon's south pole (23 Aug 2023), making India the 4th country to soft-land on the Moon and the 1st at the south pole. Components: Lander (Vikram) + Rover (Pragyan) — no orbiter. Launched by LVM3 from Sriharikota. Key findings: confirmed presence of Sulphur, detected Oxygen, Iron, and other elements near the south pole.

Aditya-L1 — India's first solar observation mission. Placed in a halo orbit around Lagrangian Point L1 (about 1.5 million km from Earth). Launched by PSLV-C57 in September 2023. Carries 7 payloads including VELC (Visible Emission Line Coronagraph) and SUIT (Solar Ultraviolet Imaging Telescope).

Gaganyaan — India's first crewed spaceflight programme. Aims to send 3 astronauts (Gaganauts) to a 400 km Low Earth Orbit for 3 days. Uses human-rated LVM3 (HLVM3). Key tests: Crew Escape System, TV-D1 test flight (Oct 2023). Life support system: ECLSS (Environmental Control & Life Support System).

NavIC (Navigation with Indian Constellation) — India's regional satellite navigation system. 7 satellites (3 GEO + 4 GSO). Covers India + 1,500 km beyond borders. Two services: SPS (Standard Positioning Service) — civilian, and RS (Restricted Service) — military. GAGAN (GPS Aided GEO Augmented Navigation) — India's SBAS for aviation, improves GPS accuracy.

Black Holes — regions where gravity is so strong that nothing, not even light, can escape. Event Horizon: the boundary beyond which nothing returns. Sagittarius A* — the supermassive black hole at the centre of the Milky Way (imaged by Event Horizon Telescope in 2022).

Big Bang Theory — the universe began ~13.8 billion years ago from a singularity. Evidence: Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR), redshift of galaxies (Hubble's Law), abundance of light elements. JWST (James Webb Space Telescope) — launched Dec 2021 to L2 point. Infrared observatory looking at the earliest galaxies formed after the Big Bang.

Gravitational Waves — ripples in spacetime caused by accelerating massive objects (merging black holes, neutron stars). Predicted by Einstein (1916), first detected by LIGO in 2015 (Nobel Prize 2017). India's proposed LIGO-India detector in Aundha Nagnath, Maharashtra.

Neutrinos — nearly massless, electrically neutral subatomic particles. Travel at nearly the speed of light. Rarely interact with matter ("ghost particles"). India's INO (India-based Neutrino Observatory) — proposed in Bodi West Hills, Tamil Nadu. Pulsars — rapidly rotating neutron stars emitting beams of electromagnetic radiation. Used as "cosmic lighthouses."

Space Debris & Kessler Syndrome — Kessler Syndrome is a scenario where the density of objects in LEO is high enough that collisions generate more debris, creating a cascading chain reaction. Makes certain orbits unusable. ISRO's Project NETRA (Network for Space Object Tracking & Analysis) monitors space debris.

Goldilocks Zone (Habitable Zone) — the orbital region around a star where conditions allow liquid water to exist. Not too hot, not too cold. Exoplanets — planets orbiting stars outside our solar system. NASA's Kepler & TESS missions have discovered thousands.

AMR (Antimicrobial Resistance) — when microorganisms evolve to resist antibiotics/drugs. WHO's AWaRe Tool classifies antibiotics into: Access (first-line, widely available), Watch (higher resistance potential, limited use), and Reserve (last-resort antibiotics). India's National Action Plan on AMR launched in 2017.

Tuberculosis (TB) — caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis. India has the highest TB burden globally. India's target: eliminate TB by 2025 (5 years ahead of the global SDG target of 2030). Key schemes: Ni-kshay Poshan Yojana (nutrition support), NIKSHAY digital platform. BCG vaccine — the only TB vaccine currently in use (given at birth). New candidate: BPaL regimen for drug-resistant TB.

Sickle Cell Disease — genetic blood disorder where red blood cells become crescent/sickle-shaped. Caused by mutation in the HBB gene. Common in tribal populations of India (Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, MP, Odisha). National Sickle Cell Anaemia Elimination Mission — launched 2023, targets screening of 7 crore people in tribal areas.

Food Fortification — adding essential micronutrients (iron, folic acid, vitamin B12, zinc) to staple foods. FSSAI mandates fortification of rice, wheat flour, edible oil, milk, and salt. Fortified rice: identified by +F logo. Distributed through PDS, ICDS, PM POSHAN. Fortification ≠ adulteration.

Trans-fat — artificially produced by partial hydrogenation of vegetable oils. Increases LDL ("bad") cholesterol, decreases HDL ("good") cholesterol. FSSAI limit: max 2% trans-fat in oils/fats. WHO targets global elimination by 2023 (REPLACE initiative). Non-Sugar Sweeteners (NSS) — WHO (2023) recommended against using NSS for weight control due to potential long-term health risks (aspartame, stevia, sucralose).

Xenotransplantation — transplanting organs from one species to another (typically pig to human). Pig organs are genetically modified to reduce rejection. First pig-to-human heart transplant: University of Maryland (Jan 2022). Key challenge: overcoming immune rejection (hyperacute, acute, chronic).

Cervavac — India's first indigenously developed quadrivalent HPV (Human Papillomavirus) vaccine by Serum Institute of India. Targets HPV types 6, 11, 16, 18. Prevents cervical cancer — the 2nd most common cancer in Indian women. Included in national immunisation program.

Phage Therapy — using bacteriophages (viruses that infect and kill bacteria) to treat bacterial infections. Alternative to antibiotics, especially for AMR-resistant infections. Highly specific — each phage targets a particular bacterial species. In experimental/compassionate use stage globally.

Hypersonic Missiles — travel at Mach 5+ (5 times the speed of sound). Two types: Hypersonic Glide Vehicles (HGV) — launched by rocket, glide to target; Hypersonic Cruise Missiles (HCM) — powered by scramjet engines. Difficult to intercept due to speed and manoeuvrability. Countries with hypersonic capability: Russia, China, US, North Korea. India developing HSTDV (Hypersonic Technology Demonstrator Vehicle) via DRDO.

BrahMos — Indo-Russian joint venture (BrahMaputra + Moskva rivers). Supersonic cruise missile (Mach 2.8). Variants: land, ship, submarine, and air-launched. Range extended to ~500 km after India joined MTCR. BrahMos-II (under development) — aimed to be hypersonic (Mach 5+).

AMCA (Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft) — India's 5th-generation stealth fighter aircraft. Being developed by ADA (Aeronautical Development Agency) and HAL. Features: stealth design, internal weapons bay, supercruise capability, AESA radar.

MIRVs (Multiple Independently-targetable Re-entry Vehicles) — a single missile carries multiple warheads, each targeting different locations. India successfully tested Agni-5 with MIRV technology (Mission Divyastra, 2024) — making India the first country outside P5 + China to demonstrate MIRV capability.

Drones (DRDO & Indian Forces) — key platforms: Tapas (Rustom-II) — MALE UAV (Medium Altitude Long Endurance) by DRDO; Archer — armed drone; India acquired MQ-9B SeaGuardian/SkyGuardian drones from the US. Counter-drone systems — using directed energy weapons, net-capture drones, jamming. Indian Army inducted indigenous anti-drone systems.

Artillery & Submarines — ATAGS (Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System) — developed by DRDO, world record for longest range among towed howitzers. Kalvari-class submarines — Scorpene-class diesel-electric submarines built under Project-75 at Mazagon Dock. 6 submarines: INS Kalvari, Khanderi, Karanj, Vela, Vagir, Vagsheer. Project-75I — next batch of 6 conventional submarines with AIP (Air Independent Propulsion).

Kakrapar Atomic Power Plant (KAPP) — Gujarat. KAPP-3 is India's first 700 MWe Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) — achieved criticality in 2020. Part of India's plan to scale up indigenous PHWRs. India has 22 operational nuclear reactors (total capacity ~7,480 MWe).

Uranium Enrichment — natural uranium: ~0.7% U-235, ~99.3% U-238. Enrichment increases U-235 concentration. Low-Enriched Uranium (LEU): 3-5% (power reactors). Highly-Enriched Uranium (HEU): 20%+ (weapons, research reactors). Methods: gas centrifuge, gaseous diffusion.

Rare Earth Elements (REEs) — group of 17 elements (15 lanthanides + scandium + yttrium). Critical for electronics, EVs, wind turbines, defence equipment. China dominates ~60% of global mining and ~90% of processing. India has 6th largest reserves globally (found in Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Kerala). IREL (India) Limited — India's REE miner. India exploring deep-sea mining of polymetallic nodules for REEs.

Vanadium — strategic metal used in steel alloys (strengthens & lightens), vanadium redox flow batteries (grid-scale energy storage). India discovered significant vanadium deposits in Arunachal Pradesh. Lithium — key component of Li-ion batteries (EVs, electronics). India discovered lithium reserves in Jammu & Kashmir (Reasi district) and Rajasthan (2023). Currently, Australia, Chile, China are top lithium producers.

Graphene — single layer of carbon atoms arranged in a 2D hexagonal lattice. Strongest known material, excellent conductor of heat & electricity, nearly transparent. Applications: flexible electronics, water filtration, composites, batteries. Discovered by Geim & Novoselov (Nobel Prize 2010). Lab-Grown Diamonds — created using CVD (Chemical Vapour Deposition) or HPHT (High Pressure High Temperature). India is the world's largest lab-grown diamond producer (Surat, Gujarat).

IndiaAI Mission — Rs 10,372 crore initiative (approved March 2024). Components: IndiaAI Compute Capacity (10,000+ GPU infrastructure), IndiaAI Innovation Centre, IndiaAI Datasets Platform, IndiaAI Application Development, IndiaAI FutureSkills, IndiaAI Startup Financing.

BHASHINI (BHASHa INterface for India) — MeitY's AI-powered language translation platform. Aims to break language barriers by providing real-time translation across all 22 scheduled languages. Built using NLP & AI. Part of Digital India initiative.

NFC (Near Field Communication) — short-range wireless technology (up to 10 cm). Operates at 13.56 MHz. Used in contactless payments (UPI Tap & Pay), smart cards, data sharing. Key difference from Bluetooth: NFC requires much closer proximity, is slower, but connects instantly.

Submarine Cables — carry ~99% of intercontinental internet traffic. Fibre optic cables laid on the ocean floor. Key routes: Trans-Atlantic, Trans-Pacific, India-Singapore. India connected by ~17 submarine cables. Vulnerability: damage from anchors, earthquakes, sabotage. E-Ink (Electronic Ink) — display technology using microcapsules of charged black & white particles. Used in e-readers (Kindle). Advantages: no backlight needed, reads like paper, extremely low power.

Digital Twin (Project Sangam) — a virtual replica of a physical system, process, or product. Uses real-time data, IoT sensors, AI, and simulation. Applications: urban planning, infrastructure management, manufacturing. India's Project Sangam — creating digital twins of Indian cities for smart city planning.

XPoSat (X-ray Polarimeter Satellite) — India's first dedicated X-ray polarimetry mission. Launched by PSLV-C58 (Jan 2024). Studies X-ray emissions from black holes, neutron stars, and pulsars. Carries POLIX (primary payload — X-ray polarimeter) and XSPECT (spectroscopy in 0.8-15 keV range). India is the 2nd country (after NASA's IXPE) to launch an X-ray polarimetry mission.

POEM (PSLV Orbital Experimental Module) — repurposes the spent 4th stage (PS4) of PSLV as an orbital platform for conducting in-space experiments. Cost-effective use of what was previously discarded space debris. Demonstrated during PSLV-C53, C55, and C58 missions.

Proba-3 — ESA mission launched by ISRO's PSLV-C59 (Dec 2024). Two satellites flying in precise formation to create an artificial solar eclipse — allows study of the Sun's corona. Demonstrates precision formation flying technology at millimetre accuracy.

ISS (International Space Station) — orbits at ~400 km altitude (LEO). Joint project: NASA, Roscosmos, ESA, JAXA, CSA. Planned decommission: ~2030. India is not a partner but ISRO has sent experiments via collaboration. SKAO (Square Kilometre Array Observatory) — world's largest radio telescope being built in Australia and South Africa. India is a founding member. Will study dark energy, cosmic magnetism, and search for extraterrestrial signals.

Pushpak RLV (Reusable Launch Vehicle) — ISRO's technology demonstrator for a reusable space plane. RLV-TD LEX (Landing Experiment) — successfully demonstrated autonomous runway landing (2023-2024). Aims to reduce launch costs by reusing the first stage. Named Pushpak after the mythical Pushpaka Vimana.

GSAT-20 (GSAT-N2) — India's heaviest communication satellite (~4,700 kg). High-throughput satellite providing Ka-band connectivity. Launched by SpaceX Falcon 9 (as NSIL's commercial arrangement — first Indian satellite on SpaceX). Provides broadband in remote & underserved areas including northeastern India and island territories.