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Sherlocking Revision Doc
Environment & Ecology — 2024
PT 365 + Updated Part 1 — the most comprehensive 21-page revision doc covering every high-yield Environment & Ecology topic for UPSC Prelims.
21 pages · Last updated 2024
Download PDFClimate Change
Ozone Hole — ~90% of ozone is in the stratosphere (ozone layer). Measured in Dobson Units (DU). Ozone-Depleting Substances (ODSs) include CFCs, HCFCs, carbon tetrachloride, and methyl bromide. The Antarctic polar vortex creates ideal conditions for ozone depletion. 16 September — World Ozone Day (International Day for the Preservation of the Ozone Layer).
Montreal Protocol 1987
- Vienna Convention 1985 — provided the framework; the Montreal Protocol operationalised it in 1987.
- First treaty in UN history to achieve universal ratification (all 198 UN member states).
- Kigali Amendment 2016 — expanded the Protocol to phase down HFCs (hydrofluorocarbons), which are potent greenhouse gases (not ODSs but high GWP).
- India ratified the Kigali Amendment in 2021 — committed to a 4-step phase-down from 2032.
Cryosphere — the frozen water part of the Earth system (glaciers, ice sheets, sea ice, permafrost, snow cover). Has high albedo (reflects sunlight, cooling the Earth). Permafrost stores vast amounts of organic carbon — thawing releases CO2 and methane. Contains ~80% of global freshwater (locked in ice sheets and glaciers).
Indian Antarctic Program
| Station | Year | Status |
|---|---|---|
| Dakshin Gangotri | 1983 | Decommissioned (buried in ice) |
| Maitri | 1988 | Operational (Schirmacher Oasis) |
| Bharati | 2012 | Operational (Larsemann Hills) |
Indian Antarctic Act 2022 — India's first domestic legislation to regulate activities in the Antarctic Treaty area. Extends Indian criminal jurisdiction to Indian nationals in Antarctica.
Arctic Amplification — the Arctic is warming 2-3 times faster than the global average due to ice-albedo feedback: as sea ice melts, darker ocean absorbs more heat, accelerating further melting. Impacts Indian monsoon patterns.
Blue Ocean Event — a hypothetical scenario where the Arctic becomes virtually ice-free (less than 1 million sq km of sea ice) during summer. Would dramatically alter global weather patterns, ocean currents, and jet stream behaviour.
International Conferences
COP28 UNFCCC (Dubai, 2023)
- Loss and Damage Fund — operationalised at COP28; first pledges by UAE, Germany, UK, USA, Japan. Assists developing countries vulnerable to climate impacts.
- Warsaw International Mechanism — established at COP19 (2013) to address loss and damage from climate change impacts in developing countries.
- Global Climate Finance Framework — discussions on scaling up climate finance beyond the $100 billion annual target.
- India's role: pushed for equity, CBDR (Common but Differentiated Responsibilities), and adequate finance for developing nations.
- First-ever Global Stocktake completed — assessed collective progress under the Paris Agreement.
UNFCCC — United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, adopted in 1992 at the Rio Earth Summit. Secretariat in Bonn, Germany. 198 parties. The Global Stocktake is the Paris Agreement mechanism to assess collective progress every 5 years.
NDCs — Nationally Determined Contributions. India's updated NDC based on Panchamrit (5 commitments announced at COP26 Glasgow by PM Modi): (1) 500 GW non-fossil fuel capacity by 2030, (2) 50% energy from renewables by 2030, (3) reduce total carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030, (4) reduce carbon intensity of economy by 45% by 2030 over 2005 levels, (5) net-zero by 2070.
CCPI 2024 — Climate Change Performance Index by Germanwatch (along with NewClimate Institute and CAN). India ranked 7th overall (top 3 kept vacant as no country performs sufficiently). Ranks countries on GHG emissions, renewable energy, energy use, and climate policy.
C40 Cities — a network of major cities committed to addressing climate change. 6 Indian cities are members of C40.
Key COP28 Initiatives
- GGCI — Global Green Credit Initiative (proposed by India).
- ALTERRA Fund — $30 billion climate-focused investment fund launched by UAE, the largest private climate fund ever.
- LeadIT 2.0 — Leadership Group for Industry Transition (India-Sweden initiative), expanded at COP28 for hard-to-abate industrial sectors.
- Global River Cities Alliance — launched at COP28 to promote sustainable river-centric urban development.
Climate Mitigation
Carbon Credits Trading Scheme (CCTS) — India's domestic carbon market. Key bodies: BEE (Bureau of Energy Efficiency) administers the scheme, CERC (Central Electricity Regulatory Commission) for power sector credits, Grid Controller of India for grid emission factor calculations.
CBAM — Carbon Border Adjustment Mechanism by the EU. Essentially a non-tariff barrier — imposes a carbon levy on imports from countries without equivalent carbon pricing. Part of the EU's Fit for 55 package (reducing emissions by 55% by 2030). India has raised concerns about its impact on Indian exporters (steel, aluminium, cement, fertilisers).
National Carbon Registry — developed with UNDP support to track and manage carbon credits in India's domestic carbon market framework.
Green Deal Industrial Plan — EU's strategy to make Europe the home of clean-tech manufacturing and industrial decarbonisation, in response to the US Inflation Reduction Act.
IMO Green Voyage 2050 — International Maritime Organization project to help developing countries reduce GHG emissions from shipping. Aims for net-zero GHG emissions from international shipping by around 2050.
Harit Sagar Guidelines — green port guidelines by the Ministry of Ports, Shipping and Waterways for making Indian ports environment-friendly (zero waste, climate-resilient, clean energy use).
Green Tug Programme — initiative to introduce green hybrid tugs (powered by LNG and electric) at Indian major ports, making India a leader in sustainable port operations.
ICED 3.0 — India Cooling Action Plan. NITI Aayog initiative for integrated energy-efficient and climate-friendly cooling across sectors (buildings, cold-chain, transport AC).
Short-lived Halogens — bromine and iodine compounds from natural ocean sources and human activities. They deplete ozone but have short atmospheric lifetimes. Not covered under the Montreal Protocol but increasingly significant for ozone chemistry.
Pollution
CAQM — Commission for Air Quality Management in National Capital Region and Adjoining Areas. A statutory body (established by Act of Parliament, 2021) to coordinate, monitor, and enforce air quality measures in NCR. Supersedes EPCA.
NAQI — National Air Quality Index, maintained by CPCB. Considers 8 pollutants: PM10, PM2.5, NO2, SO2, CO, O3 (ground-level ozone), NH3 (ammonia), and Pb (lead). Six categories from Good (0-50) to Severe (401-500).
Green Crackers (NEERI)
Developed by CSIR-NEERI (National Environmental Engineering Research Institute). Three types:
- SWAS — Safe Water Releaser (suppresses dust by releasing water vapour)
- STAR — Safe Thermite Cracker (reduced particulate matter)
- SAFAL — Safe Minimal Aluminium (reduced aluminium content, 30% less emissions)
Cloud Seeding — artificial rainfall technique. Silver iodide, potassium iodide, or dry ice are dispersed into clouds to promote condensation and precipitation. Used in India to combat droughts and air pollution episodes.
Swachh Vayu Sarvekshan — ranking of Indian cities on the basis of air quality improvements under NCAP (National Clean Air Programme). Indore ranked 1st among cities for best air quality improvement.
GRAP — Graded Response Action Plan for NCR. Notified under the Environment Protection Act 1986. Implements graded measures based on air quality levels — from Stage I (Poor) to Stage IV (Severe+). Measures include construction bans, vehicle restrictions, school closures, and industrial shutdowns.
Water Pollution — CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) monitors and regulates groundwater. Key indicators: BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand) — measures organic pollution (higher BOD = more pollution), COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) — measures total organic and inorganic pollution.
Key Environmental Bodies
| Body | HQ | Key Role |
|---|---|---|
| CPCB | Delhi | Statutory body under Water Act 1974; monitors air and water quality nationally |
| UNEP | Nairobi | Leading global environmental authority; coordinates UN environmental activities |
| IPCC | Geneva | Assesses climate science; publishes Assessment Reports (AR6 latest) |
| WMO | Geneva | UN agency for weather, climate, and water; publishes State of Global Climate reports |
Land Degradation
UNCCD — United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification. The only legally binding international framework specifically addressing desertification and land degradation. One of the three Rio Conventions (along with UNFCCC and CBD). India hosted COP14 in 2019 (Greater Noida).
Endosulfan — an organochlorine pesticide, now banned in India (2011) and globally. Listed under both the Rotterdam Convention (Prior Informed Consent for hazardous chemicals) and the Stockholm Convention (on Persistent Organic Pollutants). Caused severe health damage in Kasaragod, Kerala (decades of aerial spraying on cashew plantations).
PPV&FR Act 2001 — Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers' Rights Act (amended 2016). Provides IPR for farmers and plant breeders. Farmers can save, use, exchange, and sell seeds of protected varieties. Notable case: PepsiCo sued Gujarat farmers over FL-2027 potato variety (used for Lay's chips) and later withdrew the case after PPV&FR Authority intervention.
ITPGRFA / Seed Treaty — International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. Governs access and benefit-sharing for plant genetic resources. Established the Multilateral System for 64 crops essential for food security.
Svalbard Global Seed Vault — located in Norway (Spitsbergen, Arctic). Often called the "Doomsday Vault." Stores duplicate seed samples from gene banks worldwide as insurance against catastrophic loss. Funded by the Crop Trust and the Norwegian government. Holds over 1.1 million seed samples.
International Conventions
Minamata Convention — global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury. Adopted in 2013, HQ in Geneva. Named after Minamata disease in Japan (mercury poisoning from industrial wastewater). India ratified in 2018. Covers mercury mining, use in products and processes, emissions, and releases.
Waigani Convention 1995 — bans export of hazardous and radioactive wastes to Pacific Island developing countries. Regional complement to the Basel Convention (which governs transboundary movement of hazardous wastes globally).
Biodiversity
GBFF — Global Biodiversity Framework Fund
- Established under the Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) adopted at CBD COP15 (December 2022).
- World Bank serves as trustee for the GBFF.
- 4 Goals for 2050 — halt and reverse biodiversity loss, sustainable use, fair benefit-sharing, adequate implementation means.
- 23 Targets for 2030 — including the landmark 30x30 Deal (protect 30% of land and 30% of oceans by 2030).
Global Environment Facility (GEF) — financial mechanism for several multilateral environmental agreements (CBD, UNFCCC, UNCCD, Stockholm Convention, Minamata Convention). Established in 1991. Headquartered in Washington, D.C.
Global Declaration of River Dolphins — signed by 14 countries to protect all river dolphin species. India's Ganges River Dolphin (Platanista gangetica), also called Susu, is India's National Aquatic Animal. Found in the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna river system. Essentially blind (navigates by echolocation).
World Heritage Convention 1972 — UNESCO convention for the protection of cultural, natural, and mixed heritage sites. India has 42 World Heritage Sites (34 cultural, 7 natural, 1 mixed — Khangchendzonga). The WHC Secretariat is in Paris (UNESCO HQ).
Brazzaville Summit (2023) — focused on protecting the world's three largest tropical rainforest basins: Congo Basin (Central Africa), Amazon Basin (South America), and Borneo-Mekong-Southeast Asia forests. Joint commitment to conservation, sustainable forestry, and indigenous peoples' rights.
Vaquita Porpoise — the world's most endangered marine mammal. Found only in the northern Gulf of California, Mexico. Fewer than 10 individuals remain. Threatened primarily by illegal totoaba fishing (gillnets). Listed under CITES Appendix I.
Wildlife & Conservation
Biological Diversity Act 2002 — India's primary legislation for biodiversity conservation, enacted to fulfil obligations under the CBD 1992 (Convention on Biological Diversity, Rio de Janeiro). Established the three-tier structure: NBA (National Biodiversity Authority, Chennai), SBBs (State Biodiversity Boards), and BMCs (Biodiversity Management Committees at local level).
Biological Diversity (Amendment) Act 2023 — Key Changes
| Aspect | Original Act 2002 | Amendment 2023 |
|---|---|---|
| Codified traditional knowledge | Required prior approval from NBA | Exempted registered AYUSH practitioners and codified traditional knowledge users |
| Benefit sharing | Regulated by NBA | Replaced with a facilitated access regime; terms determined by NBA |
| Offences | Criminal offences | Decriminalised many offences; replaced with penalties |
| IPR & patents | Prior NBA approval before applying for IPR | NBA approval needed before grant of IPR, not at application stage |
| Indian companies | Required approval from NBA | Only need to give prior intimation to SBBs |
Nagoya Protocol — adopted in 2010 under the CBD. Governs Access and Benefit Sharing (ABS) of genetic resources. Ensures fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from the utilisation of genetic resources with the provider countries.
BMCs — Biodiversity Management Committees, constituted at the local body level (panchayat/municipality). Prepare People's Biodiversity Registers (PBRs) documenting local biodiversity and traditional knowledge.
Wildlife Protection Act (WPA) — Amendment 2022
- Reduced schedules from 6 to 4: Schedule I (highest protection), Schedule II (lower protection), Schedule III (vermin — species that can be hunted), Schedule IV (specimens under CITES).
- Concept of vermin — species causing damage to crops/property can be declared as vermin by central government for specific areas and time periods.
- Elephants moved from Schedule I to Schedule I (retained highest protection; the Amendment strengthened penalties for elephant-related offences).
- Role of Chief Wildlife Warden strengthened — overall responsibility for wildlife management in the state.
- Brought Indian law in alignment with CITES obligations by creating a new Schedule IV for CITES-listed specimens.
Tiger Conservation
- IBCA — International Big Cat Alliance, launched by India (2023) for conservation of 7 big cats (tiger, lion, leopard, snow leopard, cheetah, jaguar, puma).
- Project Tiger 1973 — India's flagship tiger conservation programme, launched from Jim Corbett National Park.
- NTCA — National Tiger Conservation Authority, statutory body under WPA (Amendment 2006). Oversees tiger reserves.
- M-STrIPES — Monitoring System for Tigers - Intensive Protection and Ecological Status. GIS-based patrolling and monitoring tool used in tiger reserves.
- E-Bird — citizen science platform for bird-watching data, used as a supplementary biodiversity monitoring tool.
Tiger Census 2022 (5th Cycle)
- India has 3,682 tigers (2022 estimate) — over 75% of the world's wild tiger population.
- Madhya Pradesh #1 state with most tigers, followed by Karnataka and Uttarakhand.
- Jim Corbett National Park #1 tiger reserve with the highest tiger population.
Dholpur-Karauli Tiger Reserve — the 5th Tiger Reserve of Rajasthan, notified in 2023. Located in the Chambal ravines along the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border. Important corridor connecting Ranthambore TR with Madhav NP (MP).
African Cheetah Reintroduction — India reintroduced cheetahs (from Namibia and South Africa) to Kuno National Park, Madhya Pradesh. The cheetah is listed under CITES Appendix I. Key trait: the cheetah is diurnal (hunts during the day), unlike most big cats. India's cheetah programme aims to establish a free-ranging population.
Kaziranga National Park — UNESCO World Heritage Site (1985). Located along the Brahmaputra River in Assam. Home to two-thirds of the world's one-horned rhinoceroses. Also a tiger reserve. Unique: has the highest density of tigers in the world per unit area.
Species in News
Project Elephant (1992) — centrally sponsored scheme for elephant conservation. Notified Elephant Reserves (ERs) across elephant range states. India has about 30,000 Asian elephants (~60% of the global population). Key threats: habitat loss, human-elephant conflict, poaching.
Indian Rhinoceros — the largest rhino species (one-horned). Assam holds 71% of India's rhino population (primarily in Kaziranga and Manas). IUCN status: Vulnerable. Indian Rhino Vision 2020 aimed to expand rhino range to 7 PAs in Assam.
Vulture Drugs Ban — Diclofenac (veterinary use) was banned in India (2006) after causing a 97% decline in vulture populations. Additional drugs (Ketoprofen, Aceclofenac, Nimesulide) also banned for veterinary use. Meloxicam and Tolfenamic acid are vulture-safe alternatives.
Red Sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) — IUCN Endangered. Endemic to the Eastern Ghats of Andhra Pradesh. Highly valued for its dense, dark-red heartwood. Listed in CITES Appendix II. Smuggling is a major conservation challenge.
CITES — Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
- HQ in Geneva. Administered under UNEP.
- Appendix I: most endangered species (commercial trade banned).
- Appendix II: trade permitted with permits (species not currently threatened but may become so).
- Appendix III: species regulated at the request of a member country.
- MIKE Programme — Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants, a CITES initiative monitoring elephant poaching trends across Africa and Asia.
Invasive Alien Species
IPBES Report — the first comprehensive global assessment of invasive alien species. Over 37,000 alien species introduced by human activities; 3,500+ are harmful invasive species.
| Species | Impact |
|---|---|
| Prosopis juliflora | Aggressive thorny shrub; displaces native vegetation in arid regions |
| Mosquitofish (Gambusia) | Introduced for malaria control; now threatens native fish species |
| Conocarpus | Ornamental tree; high water consumption, allergens, damages infrastructure |
| Ludwigia | Aquatic weed; clogs water bodies, reduces oxygen levels |
| Red Fire Ant (Solenopsis invicta) | Aggressive stinging ant; harms agriculture, native species, and humans |
APPPC — Asia and Pacific Plant Protection Commission (FAO body) — monitors and manages plant pest threats in the region.
Protected Areas & Tiger Reserves
Notable Protected Areas
| Protected Area | State | Key Features |
|---|---|---|
| Kadalundi KVCR | Kerala | India's first river-front community reserve; mangrove ecosystem on Kadalundi River |
| Debrigarh WS | Odisha | On the banks of Hirakud Reservoir (Mahanadi River); rich dry deciduous forest |
| Similipal TR | Odisha | Famous for melanistic tigers (pseudo-melanistic); UNESCO MAB Reserve since 2009 |
| Mukurthi NP | Tamil Nadu | Part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve; high-altitude grasslands (shola-grassland ecosystem) |
| Kalakad-Mundanthurai TR | Tamil Nadu | Important habitat for the Lion-Tailed Macaque; part of Agasthyamalai BR |
| Anamalai TR | Tamil Nadu | Home to 6 indigenous tribal peoples; part of Nilgiri BR; elephant corridor |
| Gangotri NP | Uttarakhand | Source of the Ganges at Gaumukh glacier (Bhagirathi River origin) |
| Dudhwa TR | Uttar Pradesh | On India-Nepal border; swamp deer (barasingha), tigers, one-horned rhinos (reintroduced) |
Key Species — IUCN Red List Status
| Species | IUCN Status | Key Fact |
|---|---|---|
| Hangul (Kashmir Stag) | Critically Endangered | Dachigam NP, J&K; only surviving species of red deer in India |
| Great Indian Bustard | Critically Endangered | Desert NP (Rajasthan), Kutch (Gujarat); threatened by power lines, habitat loss |
| Nilgiri Tahr | Endangered | Eravikulam NP, Western Ghats; state animal of Tamil Nadu |
| Sangai Deer | Endangered | Keibul Lamjao NP, Manipur (only floating NP); dancing deer of Manipur |
| Indian Pangolin | Endangered | Most trafficked mammal in the world; WPA Schedule I |
| Hoolock Gibbon | Endangered | India's only ape; found in NE India (Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh) |
| Dhole (Asiatic Wild Dog) | Endangered | Pack hunters; found in Western Ghats, Central India, NE India |
Wetlands & Oceans
BBNJ Treaty — Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction. Adopted in 2023 under UNCLOS (UN Convention on the Law of the Sea). Covers conservation and sustainable use of marine biodiversity in high seas (areas beyond any nation's 200 nautical mile EEZ). Key provisions: marine genetic resources and benefit-sharing, area-based management tools (MPAs on high seas), environmental impact assessments, capacity building and technology transfer.
Maritime Zones — Internal Waters (full sovereignty) → Territorial Sea (12 nm from baseline, full sovereignty) → Contiguous Zone (24 nm, customs/immigration enforcement) → Exclusive Economic Zone (200 nm, sovereign rights over resources) → Continental Shelf (up to 350 nm, seabed and subsoil resources) → High Seas (freedom of navigation, no sovereign claims). Defined under UNCLOS 1982.
Ramsar Convention (1971)
- Convention on Wetlands of International Importance — signed in Ramsar, Iran (1971).
- India became a party in 1982.
- Tamil Nadu has the maximum number of Ramsar sites in India.
- India has 80+ Ramsar sites (growing). Selection criteria include supporting vulnerable/endangered species, significant waterbird populations, fish breeding grounds, etc.
Key Wetlands of India
| Wetland | State | Key Facts |
|---|---|---|
| Chilika Lake | Odisha | Largest brackish water lagoon in Asia; Ramsar site; Irrawaddy dolphins |
| Pulicat Lake | AP / TN | Second largest brackish water lagoon in India; flamingo habitat |
| Dal Lake | J&K | Urban lake in Srinagar; under NLCP (National Lake Conservation Programme) |
| Vembanad Kole | Kerala | Largest Ramsar site in Kerala; Nehru Trophy Boat Race held here |
| Kolleru Lake | Andhra Pradesh | Between Krishna and Godavari deltas; freshwater lake; bird sanctuary |
| Kanwar Lake | Bihar | Asia's largest freshwater oxbow lake; Ramsar site |
| Deepor Beel | Assam | Ramsar site near Guwahati; permanent freshwater lake; Important Bird Area |
| Sundarbans | West Bengal | World's largest mangrove forest; UNESCO World Heritage; Royal Bengal Tiger |
eDNA (Environmental DNA) — DNA shed by organisms into the environment (water, soil, air). Can be collected and analysed to detect species presence without capturing or observing them directly. Used for biodiversity surveys, detecting rare/invasive species in aquatic ecosystems.
Tropicalisation — the phenomenon where tropical marine species are expanding poleward into temperate waters due to ocean warming. Alters marine ecosystems as tropical herbivorous fish overgraze kelp and seaweed forests in temperate zones.
MISHTI Initiative — Mangrove Initiative for Shoreline Habitats & Tangible Incomes. Aims to promote mangrove conservation and restoration along India's coastline through convergence with MGNREGS, CAMPA funds, and other programmes.
First Census of Water Bodies — conducted alongside Census 2011 updates. Enumerated over 24.24 lakh water bodies across India. West Bengal had the highest number; Rajasthan had the highest number of man-made water bodies in rural areas.
Institutions & Organisations
Wildlife Institute of India (WII) & Related Bodies
- ZSI — Zoological Survey of India, HQ in Kolkata. Premier institution for surveying and documenting India's faunal diversity.
- State of India's Birds 2023 report — collaborative assessment showing long-term declines in many bird species; raptors and migratory waterbirds among the most affected.
- 75 Endemic Birds of India — India has about 75 bird species found nowhere else in the world, concentrated in the Western Ghats and the Andaman & Nicobar Islands.
International Solar Alliance (ISA)
- HQ in Gurugram, India. Launched by India and France at COP21 (Paris, 2015).
- OSOWOG — One Sun One World One Grid. India's vision for a transnational renewable energy grid connecting solar-rich regions across time zones.
- STAR-C — Solar Technology Application Resource Centres. ISA initiative to build solar capacity in member countries through training and technology support.
National Green Hydrogen Mission
- Approved in 2023 with an outlay of Rs 19,744 crore. Target: 5 MMT (million metric tonnes) green hydrogen production by 2030.
- SIGHT — Strategic Interventions for Green Hydrogen Transition. Two sub-schemes: SIGHT for electrolysers and SIGHT for green hydrogen production.
- SHIP — Strategic Hydrogen Innovation Partnership for technology development.
- Green Hydrogen Fuel Cell — uses hydrogen and oxygen to produce electricity with water as the only by-product. Used in transport (fuel cell vehicles), stationary power, and portable applications.
WWF — World Wide Fund for Nature. HQ in Gland, Switzerland. Publishes the Living Planet Report — tracks the health of 5,000+ vertebrate species globally. The 2022 report showed a 69% average decline in wildlife populations since 1970.
Hydrogen as Fuel — Green hydrogen (from renewable-powered electrolysis), grey hydrogen (from natural gas, most common), blue hydrogen (grey + carbon capture), and pink hydrogen (from nuclear power electrolysis). Green hydrogen produces zero carbon emissions during production and use.
Sustainable Development
Green Building Rating Systems
| System | Organisation | Details |
|---|---|---|
| LEED | IGBC (CII) | Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design; adapted for India by IGBC under CII |
| GRIHA | TERI + MNRE | Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment; India's national green building rating system |
Alternative Fuels & Renewable Energy
- MAHIR — Mission on Advanced and High-Impact Research. Joint initiative of MoP and MNRE for next-gen energy technologies.
- US-India RETAP — Renewable Energy Technology Action Platform for joint clean energy innovation.
- ISA (International Solar Alliance) — India-led initiative for scaling solar energy deployment globally.
Ethanol Blending Programme
- India achieved E20 target (20% ethanol blending with petrol) ahead of schedule.
- 4 Generations of Biofuels: 1G (food crops — sugarcane, corn), 2G (non-food biomass — agricultural waste, cellulose), 3G (algae-based), 4G (genetically modified organisms, synthetic biology).
- CBG/SATAT — Compressed Biogas / Sustainable Alternative Towards Affordable Transportation. Scheme to produce CBG from agricultural residue, municipal solid waste, animal dung.
Wind Energy — India ranks 4th globally in installed wind energy capacity (after China, USA, Germany). Major wind energy states: Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Rajasthan.
Electrified Flex-Fuel Vehicle (FFV) — vehicle that can run on multiple fuel blends (petrol, ethanol, or any combination) with an electric powertrain. Combines biofuel flexibility with electrification for lower emissions.
Natural Gas Types — CNG (Compressed Natural Gas, mainly methane), LNG (Liquefied Natural Gas, cooled to -162 degrees C for transport), LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas, propane + butane), CBM (Coal Bed Methane, extracted from coal seams), Shale Gas (from shale rock formations using fracking).
DME — Dimethyl Ether. Clean-burning fuel that can replace diesel and LPG. Can be produced from coal, natural gas, or biomass. Lower particulate and NOx emissions than diesel. Used as aerosol propellant and potential transport fuel.
Energy Efficiency Initiatives
| Initiative | Details |
|---|---|
| BEE | Bureau of Energy Efficiency; statutory body under Energy Conservation Act 2001 |
| SLP | Standards and Labelling Programme — star rating for appliances (1-5 stars) |
| ECBC 2017 | Energy Conservation Building Code — mandatory for large commercial buildings |
| SEEI | State Energy Efficiency Index — ranks Indian states on energy efficiency |
| UTPRERAK | Unnat Jyoti by Affordable LEDs and Appliances for All (UJALA extension for institutions) |
| EESL | Energy Efficiency Services Limited — implements UJALA (LED distribution) and NECP |
| NECP | National Energy Conservation Policy — umbrella policy for energy efficiency across sectors |
Sustainable Agriculture
Organic Farming vs Natural Farming
| Aspect | Organic Farming | Natural Farming (ZBNF) |
|---|---|---|
| External inputs | Organic fertilisers allowed (compost, vermicompost) | Zero external inputs; uses only on-farm resources |
| Certification | Requires certification (NPOP / PGS-India) | No certification needed |
| Cost | Higher than conventional | Near-zero cost (key advantage for small farmers) |
| Philosophy | Substitution (organic inputs replace chemical) | Ecosystem-based; relies on soil biology |
NPOP — National Programme for Organic Production. India's organic certification programme recognised internationally (EU, USA, Switzerland, etc.). PGS-India — Participatory Guarantee System, a farmer-group-based certification alternative for domestic market. Jaivik Bharat logo — unique identity for organic products certified under PGS-India. NCOL — National Centre of Organic and Natural Farming (renamed from NCOF).
ZBNF — Zero Budget Natural Farming (4 Pillars)
- Bijamrit — seed treatment with local cow dung and cow urine to protect from soil-borne pathogens.
- Jeevamrit — fermented microbial culture (cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulse flour, soil) applied to the soil to boost microbial activity.
- Mulching — covering soil with crop residue or organic matter to conserve moisture, regulate temperature, and prevent weed growth.
- Waapasa — moisture management through reducing irrigation frequency and maintaining soil aeration; enhancing the role of water vapour in soil.
Promoted by Subhash Palekar. Andhra Pradesh runs the largest ZBNF programme (Andhra Pradesh Community Managed Natural Farming — APCNF).
Agroforestry — integration of trees with crops and/or livestock on the same land. Common species: Subabul (Leucaena, nitrogen-fixing), Eucalyptus (fast-growing, pulpwood). ICFRE — Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education, HQ in Dehradun, leads agroforestry research. National Agroforestry Policy 2014 — India was the first country to adopt a national agroforestry policy.
Miscellaneous
Kalasa-Banduri Project — Karnataka's project to divert water from the Mahadayi (Mandovi) River tributaries (Kalasa and Banduri) to the Malaprabha River to meet drinking water needs of North Karnataka districts. Disputed by Goa (downstream state).
Sand Mining — a major environmental issue. Illegal sand mining from riverbeds and coastal areas leads to riverbank erosion, groundwater depletion, destruction of aquatic habitats, and infrastructure damage. Supreme Court has issued multiple guidelines for regulating sand mining.
Cellular Agriculture — producing agricultural products (especially meat) from cell cultures rather than raising animals. Lab-grown (cultured) meat uses animal stem cells grown in bioreactors. Potential to reduce land use, water use, and GHG emissions from livestock.
Electronic Soil (e-Soil) — electrically conductive soil substrate developed by researchers. Can stimulate plant root growth and improve crop yields when low-level electrical stimulation is applied. Early-stage technology for hydroponics and vertical farming.
Ken-Betwa River Link Project — India's first major river interlinking project. Transfers surplus water from the Ken River to the water-deficit Betwa River in the Bundelkhand region (MP and UP). Includes the Daudhan Dam on the Ken River. Partially submerges Panna Tiger Reserve (MP) — environmental concerns led to tiger and wildlife relocation plans.
Great Nicobar Island Project (ICTP) — International Container Transhipment Port planned by NITI Aayog on the southern tip of Great Nicobar Island. Would include a transshipment port, airport, power plant, and township. Environmental concerns: impact on the Shompen and Nicobarese indigenous communities, leatherback turtle nesting sites, tropical rainforest, and coral reefs.
Norman Borlaug Award — also known as the World Food Prize (associated). Norman Borlaug is the father of the Green Revolution, awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1970. The Borlaug Award recognises outstanding contributions to food security, particularly by younger scientists.
Earth System Boundaries — building on the Planetary Boundaries framework (Johan Rockstrom). Defines safe operating spaces for key Earth system processes: climate change, biosphere integrity, ozone depletion, ocean acidification, biogeochemical flows, land system change, freshwater use, atmospheric aerosols, and novel entities. Six of nine boundaries already breached.
Perovskite Solar Cells — next-generation photovoltaic technology using perovskite crystal structures. Advantages: cheaper to manufacture than silicon, flexible, lightweight, can be printed on surfaces. Challenges: stability and durability concerns. Potential to revolutionise solar energy.
Mission 50K-EV4Eco — government initiative to deploy 50,000 electric vehicles for passenger transportation in eco-sensitive areas and tourist destinations, reducing pollution in biodiversity-rich zones.
Disaster Management
CDRI — Coalition for Disaster Resilient Infrastructure. Launched by India in 2019 at the UN Climate Action Summit. Based on the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) and the Paris Agreement. Promotes resilience of infrastructure systems to climate and disaster risks.
Key Energy & Environment Organisations
| Organisation | HQ | Key Role |
|---|---|---|
| IRENA | Abu Dhabi | International Renewable Energy Agency — supports countries in transition to sustainable energy |
| IEA | Paris | International Energy Agency — OECD body; publishes World Energy Outlook |
| FAO | Rome | Food and Agriculture Organization; leads efforts to defeat hunger and improve food security |
Mullaperiyar Dam — 129-year-old gravity dam on the Periyar River in Kerala, operated by Tamil Nadu under an 1886 lease agreement. Major interstate dispute: Kerala cites safety concerns (seismic zone, structural age), Tamil Nadu depends on the dam for irrigation and drinking water. Supreme Court-appointed Dam Safety Authority monitors the situation.
Risk Tipping Point — the concept (highlighted by UNDRR) where cascading risks from multiple hazards (climate, economic, social) interact and amplify each other, pushing communities past their capacity to cope. Examples: concurrent drought + heatwave + economic downturn overwhelming response systems.
GLOF — Glacial Lake Outburst Flood. Sudden release of water from a glacial lake when the moraine dam (natural earthen dam) collapses. South Lhonak Lake (Sikkim) experienced a devastating GLOF in October 2023, causing massive flooding and destruction of the Teesta-III dam. Climate change increases GLOF risk as glaciers melt and glacial lakes expand.
Landslides — Silkyara-Barkot tunnel collapse (Uttarakhand, 2023) trapped 41 workers; rescue took 17 days. Part of the Char Dham all-weather road project — environmentalists have raised concerns about large-scale construction in fragile Himalayan geology (young, tectonically active mountains).
Heatwaves — IMD Classification
- Plains: heatwave declared when maximum temperature reaches 40 degrees C or above (and is 4.5-6.4 degrees C above normal for severe heatwave).
- Hills: heatwave declared when maximum temperature reaches 30 degrees C or above.
- Marine Heatwaves — prolonged periods of abnormally high sea surface temperatures. Impact: coral bleaching, marine ecosystem disruption, fishery collapses, intensified tropical cyclones.
Cyclone Michaung — cyclonic storm that affected the southeast coast of India (Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh) in December 2023. Caused severe flooding in Chennai. Named by Myanmar (as per WMO regional naming convention).
Fujiwhara Effect — when two tropical cyclones come within approximately 1,400 km of each other, they begin to orbit around a common centre. May merge into a single larger system or one may dominate and absorb the other. Named after Japanese meteorologist Sakuhei Fujiwhara.
UNDRR / Sendai Framework — United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction. The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030) has 7 global targets and 4 priority areas: understanding disaster risk, strengthening disaster risk governance, investing in DRR for resilience, and enhancing disaster preparedness.
Oil Spill — Oilzapper — a bioremediation technology developed by TERI (The Energy and Resources Institute). Uses a cocktail of bacteria immobilised on a carrier material to degrade crude oil and petroleum hydrocarbons. Has been used successfully in oil spill cleanup operations in India and abroad.
Geography
ICIMOD — International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development. Established in 1983, HQ in Kathmandu, Nepal. 8 member countries: Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan (all Hindu Kush Himalaya countries). Focuses on sustainable mountain development, climate change adaptation, and ecosystem conservation.
Atlantification — the process by which the Arctic Ocean is becoming more like the Atlantic Ocean. Warmer, saltier Atlantic waters are penetrating deeper into the Arctic, reducing sea ice formation and changing marine ecosystems. A manifestation of Arctic amplification.
Indian Ocean Geoid Low — a region in the Indian Ocean (south of Sri Lanka) where Earth's gravity is anomalously low, creating a geoid depression (sea level is ~100 m lower than global average at this point). Caused by deep mantle dynamics — remnants of an ancient subducted tectonic plate (Tethys slab) affecting density distribution in the mantle.
Katabatic Winds — cold, dense air flowing downhill from elevated terrain (like glaciers, plateaus) under gravity. Common in Antarctica and Greenland. Anabatic Winds — warm air rising uphill during daytime due to surface heating. Both are local winds driven by temperature differences between slopes and adjacent air.
Chilla-i-Kalan — the 40-day harshest winter period in Kashmir (December 21 to January 31). Temperatures can drop to minus 10 degrees C or below. Dal Lake often freezes. Followed by Chilla-i-Khurd (20 days) and Chilla-i-Bachha (10 days).
Phreatomagmatic Eruptions — volcanic eruptions caused by the interaction of hot magma with water (surface or underground). The water flash-vaporises, causing explosive eruptions with fine ash and steam. Example: 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha'apai eruption (underwater volcano, massive tsunami).
E Prime Layer — a newly identified layer at the top of Earth's outer core, just below the core-mantle boundary. Formed by chemical interaction between water from the mantle and iron in the core. Releases hydrogen and forms iron-rich silicates, potentially explaining observed seismic anomalies.
Ring of Fire — the horseshoe-shaped zone around the Pacific Ocean where about 75% of the world's active volcanoes and about 90% of earthquakes occur. Runs along the edges of the Pacific Plate and other tectonic plates. Stretches from New Zealand through Southeast Asia, Japan, Kamchatka, Alaska, and down the western Americas.
Shelf Cloud — a low, horizontal, wedge-shaped cloud formation associated with the leading edge of a thunderstorm's gust front. Forms when warm, moist air is lifted by the cold outflow from a storm. Often precedes severe weather (heavy rain, strong winds).
Sun Halo — an optical phenomenon forming a ring of light around the sun (or moon). Caused by refraction of light through hexagonal ice crystals in cirrus clouds at high altitude. The most common halo has a radius of 22 degrees.
Argoland — a lost continent that broke off from western Australia about 155 million years ago during the breakup of Gondwana. Researchers traced its 5,000 km journey northward and found it didn't remain a single landmass but shattered into fragments now forming parts of Southeast Asia.
Homo naledi — an extinct hominin species discovered in the Rising Star cave system, South Africa (2013). Remarkable combination of primitive features (small brain) and modern human-like features (hands, feet). Evidence of deliberate burial practices despite a brain one-third the size of modern humans.
Places in News — India
- Zojila Tunnel — under construction between Sonamarg and Drass (J&K); will provide all-weather connectivity on the Srinagar-Leh highway.
- Narmada River — flows westward into the Arabian Sea through a rift valley; forms the traditional boundary between North and South India.
- Siang River — the name of the Brahmaputra in Arunachal Pradesh before it enters the Assam plains.
- Subansiri River — the largest tributary of the Brahmaputra; the Subansiri Lower Dam (India's largest hydropower project under construction) is on this river.
- Sukapaika River — a distributary of the Mahanadi in Odisha; flood-prone during monsoons.
- Burtse — a location in eastern Ladakh along the LAC (Line of Actual Control) near the Depsang Plains; strategically significant in India-China border dynamics.
Updated Content
Green Credit Programme — market-based mechanism under the Environment (Protection) Act 1986. Incentivises voluntary environmental actions by individuals, communities, and industries. Covers 8 activities: tree plantation, water management, sustainable agriculture, waste management, air pollution reduction, mangrove conservation, ecomark, and sustainable building/infrastructure.
Green Climate Fund (GCF) — established at COP16 Cancun (2010) under the UNFCCC. The world's largest dedicated climate fund. Helps developing countries with both mitigation and adaptation projects. Aims to mobilise $100 billion per year in climate finance. HQ in Incheon, South Korea.
UNEA-6 — 6th session of the United Nations Environment Assembly held in Nairobi (2024). Adopted resolutions on combating desertification, land degradation, drought, strengthening the science-policy interface, and promoting sustainable lifestyles. UNEA is the highest-level decision-making body on environmental matters.
Climate and Clean Air Conference — focused on short-lived climate pollutants (SLCPs): black carbon, methane, tropospheric ozone, and HFCs. Reducing SLCPs can deliver rapid climate benefits as they have much shorter atmospheric lifetimes than CO2.
Greenwashing — the practice of making misleading claims about the environmental benefits of a product, service, technology, or company practice. Companies make unsubstantiated "green" claims to appeal to eco-conscious consumers. Regulatory bodies (including India's ASCI) are increasingly scrutinising such claims.
NMCG / Namami Gange — National Mission for Clean Ganga. Flagship programme for Ganga rejuvenation. Key components: pollution abatement (sewage treatment), river surface cleaning, biodiversity conservation, afforestation, industrial effluent monitoring, and Ganga Gram (rural sanitation). Implemented by NMCG under the Ministry of Jal Shakti.
Plastic Waste — PWM Rules 2024 — updated Plastic Waste Management Rules strengthening Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) obligations. Ban on single-use plastics expanded. Battery Waste Management Rules 2024 — mandate EPR for battery producers, importers, and recyclers covering all battery types (EV batteries, portable, industrial). EPR — Extended Producer Responsibility — makes producers responsible for the end-of-life environmental impact of their products.
New Ramsar Sites (Recent Additions)
| Site | State | Key Feature |
|---|---|---|
| Aghanashini Estuary | Karnataka | One of the least polluted estuaries in India; rich mangrove ecosystem |
| Ankasamudra Bird Conservation Reserve | Karnataka | Community-managed; heronry for painted storks and other waterbirds |
| Magadi Kere Conservation Reserve | Karnataka | Winter habitat for bar-headed geese and other migratory birds |
| Karaivetti Bird Sanctuary | Tamil Nadu | Important habitat for migratory waterfowl; freshwater swamp |
Forest Conservation Amendment Act 2023 — key changes: renamed to Van (Sanrakshan Evam Samvardhan) Adhiniyam; exempted land within 100 km of international borders for strategic and security projects; excluded forest land along rail and road sides (up to 0.10 hectares); introduced compensatory afforestation on unrecorded forest land. Concerns raised about diluting forest protection, especially in the Northeast.
COP14 CMS — 14th Conference of the Parties to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals. Held in Samarkand, Uzbekistan (2024). Key outcomes: new listings of species requiring protection, strengthened conservation measures for migratory birds, marine species, and terrestrial mammals.
Biodiversity Heritage Sites — notified by state governments under the Biological Diversity Act 2002 (Section 37). Areas of biodiversity importance with unique ecosystems, rare species, or cultural significance related to biodiversity. Examples include Nallur Tamarind Grove (Karnataka), Ameenpur Lake (Telangana), and Majuli Island (Assam).
Snow Leopard — the "Ghost of the Mountains." Found in the high-altitude Himalayas (Ladakh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh). IUCN status: Vulnerable. India has an estimated 700+ snow leopards. SECURE Himalaya project and Global Snow Leopard and Ecosystem Protection (GSLEP) programme support conservation.
Ganga River Dolphin — India's National Aquatic Animal. IUCN: Endangered. NDRC (National Dolphin Research Centre) in Patna — India's first and only research centre dedicated to freshwater dolphins, on the banks of the Ganges. Project Dolphin (2020) launched for both river and marine dolphin conservation.
Leopard Census — India's first comprehensive leopard census revealed an estimated 12,852 leopards (2018 figures, reported alongside tiger census). Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka, and Maharashtra have the highest leopard populations. Leopards are listed as Vulnerable (IUCN) and WPA Schedule I.
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